Agenda

Nowadays it is possible to find a few people who do not think that mass media affect, to some extent, public opinion. Admittedly, people find out about numerous events and phenomena from mass media. This assumption can be regarded as a basis for the agenda-setting theory. The theory’s major point is that mass media decide what is the most important news and what event (or person) â€Å"deserves† less attention. Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Agenda-Setting Theory in Public Policy specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More It is necessary to point out that the basic points of the agenda-setting theory are plausible, and the strength of the theory lies in the fact that media do shape public opinion to certain extent, but the weakness of the theory is that mass media’s impact is somewhat over-estimated. McCombs and Shaw claim that people â€Å"learn not only about a given issue, but also how much impor tance to attach to that issue from the amount of information†, in this way media are setting the â€Å"agenda† (1972, 176). Admittedly, this basic assumption of their theory is plausible since mass media do â€Å"sorts† news and adhere different levels of importance to each event and person. Thus, many people follow the set â€Å"agenda† and pay more attention to most important and less attention to least important. Besides, this principle works in the same way when it deals with political campaigns. One of the greatest strengths of the agenda-setting theory is that it presents â€Å"a vast wealth of research on the impact of mass media content on the public agenda† (McCombs and Ghanem 2003, 68). The theory reveals the major processes which influence public opinion. It is especially relevant when considering political campaigns since at present the â€Å"information in the mass media becomes the only contact many have with politics† (McCombs and Shaw 1972, 176). Thus, politicians’ pledges are perceived through the vision of mass media. Apparently, when mass media highlight the campaign of a politician and there is nothing said about others, people can forget about the existence of â€Å"others†. However, apart from the strengths the agenda-setting theory has quite a significant weakness. Crespi states that the theory â€Å"does not accept the discredited image of all-powerful mass media†, but â€Å"does ascribe a major role to them [mass media] in the public opinion process† (1997, 40). Nevertheless, even the major role of mass media is quite a disputable issue. Advertising Looking for essay on communications media? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More McCombs and Ghanem claim that the plausibility of the agenda-setting theory is supported by the fact that voters do not have â€Å"alternative means of observing the day-to-day changes in the political arena† (2003, 185). However, it is not taken into account that voters are usually exposed to different types of mass media. Admittedly, various newspapers and magazines set different agendas. Some people prefer reading this or that newspaper or magazine because it highlights campaigns and activities of a certain politician. In this case, the voter sets his own agenda by choosing this or that source of information. These cases are not rare; on the contrary they are rather common. Thus, this is the most evident weakness of the theory which assumes that mass media play the primary role. In conclusion, it is possible to point out that the agenda-setting theory is very important in terms of the study of mass media impact on public opinion. The major strength of the study is that it reveals certain processes which define the impact of mass media. However, the major weakness of the theory is that it regards mass media as primary source of public agenda shaping. Biblio graphy Crespi, Irving. The Public Opinion Process: How the People Speak. Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., 1997. McCombs, Maxwell and Salma I. Ghanem. â€Å"The Convergence of Agenda Setting and Framing.† In Framing Public Life: Perspectives on Media and Our Understanding of the Social World, edited by Oscar H. Gandy, August E. Grant, Stephen D. Reese, 67-83. Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., 2003. McCombs, Maxwell E. and Donald L. Shaw â€Å"The Agenda-Setting Function of Mass Media.† Public Opinion Quarterly 36, no. 2 (1972): 176-187.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Agenda-Setting Theory in Public Policy specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More This essay on Agenda-Setting Theory in Public Policy was written and submitted by user Legend Bowen to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here. Agenda Table of Contents Introduction Impact of the media on the public policy process Positive Effects of Agenda Setting Theory Negative Effects of Agenda Setting Theory Conclusion Bibliography Footnotes Introduction Mass-media has a lot of influence on the audience in terms of the daily information for discussion. People talk about topics in the newspapers or in the radios. This is the basis for the agenda setting theory, brought forward by 1972 by Maxwell McCombs and Donald Shaw1. The mass-media determines the information that is prioritized by the public, therefore directing their interests towards a particular media.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Agenda-Setting Theory specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The audience depends on the keenness given to various thoughts, concerns or matters by the media that make the topic more or less important. The media makes use of this aspect to raise the awareness of the public on relevant matters. This theory helps to explain what is regarded as vital by the people, as well as determines the key issues as seen by the public, based on the media that they are exposed to2. The role of the media is to report and the people then form their opinions based on the information provided. The agenda setting theory is both advantageous and disadvantageous. The merit is that it provides people with information, while the demerit is that this information is biased. The bias is because the media chooses for the people what is more vital, based on the prominence of the reports. The agenda setting function was observed to have a variety of components including: media agenda, which are the means of relaying information such as newspapers and the television; public agenda, which are issues considered by the public to be important and therefore raising discussions; policy agenda, which are the matters that are regarded as vital by policy makers such as the legislators; and corporate agenda, which are the matters regarded as vital by big businesses. The agenda setting effect is observed to be predictable, based on the characteristics of the media, the problems and the people3. Impact of the media on the public policy process The first step in influencing an audience is getting their attention on a particular issue. The media does this by increasing the prominence of a particular topic on their reports. The media also affects the understanding of the issues presented, and creates a viewpoint in the audience, which contributes to the public opinion. Every issue is observed to have many objects, which in turn have attributes. The emphasis of the media on various attributes is what determines the public perception and attention on a particular issue.Advertising Looking for essay on communications media? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More In the analysis conducted by McComb and Shaw during the 1968 pres idential campaign, they observed the various issues raised by various media, and studied the responses provided by the candidates with regard to those issues4. The forms of media used in the study included the television and print media. The attention given by the media via the television was based on the time spent on reporting the issue, as well as the position of the story, in terms of leading. The priority of issues in the newspapers and magazines were based on the space allocated, as well as the position of the story. The issues raised in the media were observed to be key campaign topics for the various candidates, which led the public to judge the candidates based on their responses to those issues. This was an indicator of the influence of the media on the decisions made by the audience. This gave the media a lot of power in terms of how they portrayed the candidates, based on how they tackled these issues, which were now the focus of the nation. This was observed to be the e pitome of political power, since politicians can observe trends in the media and the public, then frame their opinions in a manner to satisfy the people’s expectations5. The media agenda has been identified to influence the public agenda though it does not determine it. The influence of the media does not overpower the ability of the public to make rational decisions on the main issues regarding their communities or nation. The people are observed to be capable of determining the importance of an issue that has been presented by the media, irrespective of whether it is recurrent. If the public identifies the news stories in the media to be important, then the media can be said to have set the agenda. An example of the rationality behind people’s opinions despite media efforts to sway their views was observed in the Clinton-Lewinsky scandal. The media failed in its efforts to relate the scandal to the accomplishments or disappointments in governance of President Clinton while in office6.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Agenda-Setting Theory specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The essence of agenda-setting was identified to be a psychological need by people to understand the scenario of a new situation. The media-agenda is seen to influence especially in situations where the public has little information on the particular issue. Politically, this is seen when there are new candidates or referendum issues that people are not adequately informed in. The media provides orientation to the public on new and unfamiliar issues. The degree of the need for orientation depends on the relevance of the matter and the level of uncertainty7. Positive Effects of Agenda Setting Theory One of the benefits of the media is that it provides people with information of the occurrences both locally and internationally. This information is what determines the discussions held among friends, since it invo lves situations of people we love and helps to determine the well-being of our liberty. The research conducted by McComb and Shaw was beyond the investigation of whether the media determined the issues discussed by the community. Maxwell determined that the topics that people discussed were chosen by the media, which was indicated by the continued discussion of a particular issue that remained on the front page for a long time. In addition to this discovery8, McComb sought to find out whether the thoughts of the people were controlled by the media, in terms of what people thought about, and how they thought about it. People were observed to follow the content provided by the media in everyday discussions. The agenda-setting theory helps to explain why the public collectively prioritizes similar topics. It also identifies that people exposed to the same media hold similar positions of the key issues, while exposure to varying media creates varying key issues. Consumer research is a f ield that has benefited from agenda setting, in that organizations can be able to tailor their messages so that they can pull the crowd, based on what is considered to be of importance to the public. The public is dependent on mass-media to receive the most important information, which is relayed in a manner that is easy to understand9.Advertising Looking for essay on communications media? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Negative Effects of Agenda Setting Theory The media sets the agenda for discussion based on the information provided with bias. An example of a story that was publicized for a long time was the Clinton-Lewinsky scandal. By virtue of it being on the newspaper front page for several days, the matter was a hot discussion topic. The media stations were also in competition for providing any new information relating to the scandal first, and so they posted updates on websites. The media stations shared every bit of information with the people, which is one of the negative impacts of the media on society. The provision of excess information by the media becomes harmful to the public, and especially the involved parties10. The people who are constantly talked about and judged by the public due to continued display of their issues by the media find it difficult to overcome their problems, with everyone watching. Another incidence of the negative impact of the agenda setting theory is in the televising of the capture of children by Iraqi soldiers. The release of this kind of information to the concerned family members via the media is not the right approach. The information provided by the media is also likely to be politically influenced due to the correlation between media owners and the politicians11. Since politicians are in some cases sponsored by media owners, they may choose to direct their political advertisements through particular media, therefore influencing the material that is made available to the public. Agenda setting is also disadvantageous in that it may neglect some key issues, leaving the public uninformed on some important matters. At the same time, the media creates a sense of biasness among the people, due to selective availing of information that makes them appear favorable to the public. This implies that the public may not be thoughtful or keenly involved in public matters, due to the lack of detailed information12. Conclusion Every single day, there is an issue for discussion among members of the public. This topic is on most cases determined by the media. Despite the disadvantages of having particular topics with higher priority than others, the media plays a big role in providing the information, which we can then process and come up with an opinion for ourselves. The opinions that people form from the stories in the media can then be expressed using various channels, without interference from the government, due to freedom of speech. According to the studies conducted by McComb and Shaw, high salience of affect prevented the media from obtaining more information regarding matters of high individual significance. It was recommended that investigations on communication behaviour and political agenda-setting include other variables. The consideration of psychological and sociological variables was identified to be of importance in the study of political consensus. Bibliography McCombs, Maxwell, and Donald Shaw. â€Å"Th e agenda-setting function of mass media.† Public Opinion Quarterly, 1972: 36, 176-187. McCombs, Maxwell, Esteban Lopez-Escobar, and Juan Pablo Llamas. â€Å"Setting the agenda of attributes in the 1996 Spanish general election.† Journal of Communication, 2000: 50(2), 77-92. Rossler, Patrick, and Michael Schenk. â€Å"Cognitive bonding and the German reunification: Agenda-setting and persuasion effects of mass media.† International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 2000: 12(1), 29-47. Footnotes 1 Shaw and McCombs were studying the role of the media in the presidential campaign in 1968. The study was conducted in Chapel Hill, North Carolina. 2 Maxwell McCombs, Lopez-Escobar Esteban, and Juan Pablo Llamas. â€Å"Setting the agenda of attributes in the 1996 Spanish general election.† Journal of Communication, 2000: 50(2), 77-92. 3Patrick Rossler, and Schenk Michael. â€Å"Cognitive bonding and the German reunification: Agenda-setting and persuasion effects of mass media.† International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 2000: 12(1), 29-47. 4Maxwell McCombs, and Donald Shaw. â€Å"The agenda-setting function of mass media.† Public Opinion Quarterly, 1972: 36, 176-187 5 Maxwell McCombs, and Donald Shaw, 182 6 Maxwell McCombs, Lopez-Escobar Esteban, and Juan Pablo Llamas, 87 7 Patrick Rossler, and Schenk Michael, 31 8 Maxwell McCombs, and Donald Shaw, 186 9 Maxwell McCombs, Lopez-Escobar Esteban, and Juan Pablo Llamas, 89 10 Maxwell McCombs, and Donald Shaw, 186 11 Patrick Rossler, and Schenk Michael, 32 12 Patrick Rossler, and Schenk Michael, 33 This essay on Agenda-Setting Theory was written and submitted by user Callum Dejesus to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here. Agenda

Critical Thinking Essay Sample

Critical Thinking Essay Sample Critical Thinking Essay Sample What it means to be human in ancient Israel: Israelites are a group of people in the Middle East who believe that they are all descendants of Jacob. The Israelites are perhaps the only people with a well recorded history dating back to 6000BC; their history is well written in religious books such as the Quran and the bible. In the olden days being an Israelite was a hard thing as you had to live according to the standards set by the leaders and the God that was never seen, most people suffered as there was no democracy. The Israelites were ruled by kings who had super special powers and no one was authorized to question their judgment. To them, the kings were a level lower than God and therefore deserved to be respected. The people of Israel were monotheists, meaning they worshiped only one God but sometimes they ended up worshiping the gods and goddesses of the surrounding people. According to their religious beliefs, it was clearly stated that one should worship only God despite that some went against the rule. However, there were serious consequences attributed to that. For instance, anyone found worshiping another god was stoned to death outside the city and in the case where the whole group was found to worship other gods it resulted in mass punishments that would sometimes lead to death. The Israelite community constituted of twelve tribes. Among these tribes was the Leviticus where the entire priests were chosen from. The Levites only become priest and they were not required to do any duties other than their temple work. Furthermore, they had no land and therefore depended on the other tribes for food who had to give out one tenth of their produce to the Levites. This can be seen as some form of exploitation of the people of Israel as others had to work and use their hard work to feed the people who had been chosen by god. Despite this, they highly believed that it was the right thing to do before God. In Israel, most people were farmers and lived in small villages while a small number lived in towns. However, the towns were much smaller and underdeveloped than the modern day towns. Markets were always held in the gateways of the towns. The life of most Israelites however revolved around worshiping and most of the time they were either doing service to god or praying to god for forgiveness. The Israelites had rules that were supposed to guide them throughout their life; these rules were known as the commandments. These had to be followed strictly failure to which they would be punished severely. Moses one of the early Israelites, was given these rules by god while on top of Mount Sinai, alone meaning no one was there to witness him being given the rules. This means that the people had to live and abide by the rules that they did not have a chance to even vote for and make a decision yet no one was supposed to go against them failure to which lead to death. This can be seen as some form of dictatorship as only one person was to be heard and if anyone went against him it automatically led to death. Death penalties were common in Israel (the bible, exodus) and many crimes resulted in death, especially crimes that were related to religion. This is ironical as the same person (God) who created the people could be so mercy less and set rules that took away the life that he made. This can be seen as rules that were set by selfish leaders so as to make the people not to question their performances and believe that they had been chosen by god and so everything they did was right. Leadership was highly respected in ancient Israel and no one was supposed to go against the leaders and anyone found to go against the leaders was persecuted by stoning. Yet these leaders were not chosen or elected by the people the leaders were chosen by God and they had to be from some families. Sex before marriage was an abomination and any person found having sex without getting married would be killed. To some point this rule was good but the punishment was too harsh for the crime, homosexuality would also lead to a death penalty this was wrong because it led to death yet life was supposed to be respected. The common man had no excuse for sinning and if he was found to have sinned it would result in heavy punishment. On the other hand leaders could sin and get away with it take an example of David who killed a man for his wife but because he was loved by God he was forgiven, if he had been a common man then he would have been killed without questioning(Harmer 89). Gender inequality was common and women were looked down upon, they held no positions in the political posts and had to do whatever the men said the woman had to respect the man and had to get married and have children a woman who had no children was considered cursed even if the husband was the cause of the problem. Prostitution was not allowed and any woman found was killed yet the man was not killed. This is very unfair to women as all of them had sinned and not the woman alone so why kill the woman alone and not all of them. War was common in ancient Israel and the local people did not decide when to go to war. This was a decision that was made by the leaders as they were the once to decide when to go to war and when not to go to war. Soldier’s war picked from every family who had to give a son to defend the people, even though this is not wrong it is still wrong considering the fact that during war people would die. However the soldiers had to go to war and incase of death there was no compensations that was made to the family. In conclusion it is evident that the people of Israel suffered a lot and this was mainly because of their leaders who were believed to be God chosen yet they were just ordinary people. Life was unfair for the common man and they had to live in fear of death as most simple crimes would lead to death by stoning, and no one was allowed to question those in authority as they were believed to be chosen by God. If you are looking for professional essay writing services to get your critical thinking essay written by certified academic writers contact www.!

Statement of purpose 2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Statement of purpose 2 - Essay Example I always desired to be of great help as well to the young people in the building of a good future they can be proud of and be a part in freeing them from ignorance therefore, from passion in criminal acts, helping them lead their skills and strengths to productivity rather than destruction. Being from Kuwait and mostly taught by my countrymen, I have discovered the advantages of being able to speak another language especially that which is used internationally, English. Speaking only one language limits a person’s opportunities like employment and continuing one’s studies overseas. This is a problem which abounds in our country because of the communication constraints to those who are not able to speak English fluently. The inability of a person to express himself well in an international language does not always mean the person is stupid or has nothing good to say. The thing is, most bright people meet the problem of effectively bringing their thoughts into a state whe re they are well understood. This situation usually brings some problems with it like the use of an ineffective English speaker’s ideas by others who are more apt to the use of the language. Such atrocities are among the reasons why I like to empower myself with the learning I can get from my post-graduate studies. I have been blessed to have acquired a good deal of information and training in verbal and written English communication skills as most of my professors have observed in the recommendation letters they provided me. However, I know there is still a wide room for me for improvement so that as an educator, I would like to let myself be further trained. This is the very reason why I would like to enroll at your prestigious school, the University of Sussex as I also know that this school is internationally recognized, providing a high quality of education. As an educator, I value the quality of education that I provide to my students so I also seek such education becaus e I believe I can never give what I do not have. I am currently teaching English at the Ministry of Education in Kuwait exclusively for boys and it is here that my passions have been inflamed again to affect the lives of such young minds, to learn another language and not be satisfied in their comfort zones. I now see myself in them when I was a student myself. My elementary and high school days have been quite easy because most of our teachers were our fellow countrymen. However, when I went to college, everything turned out to be all different in many aspects. First of all, I struggled with my English communication skills because most of our teachers are foreigners. I really had to work hard in improving my communication skills because I so much desired the education that would really lead me to the life that I like. Secondly, the school was bigger in area and number of students. This made me see what I have missed and those which I have been blessed with. One of the things that I observed was the superiority of my fellow students who are able to speak English fluently. I envied them and turned my envy to a passion for learning. The diversity of the educational backgrounds of college students opened my eyes to what I can achieve and what I can do to help other people succeed. I learned that education can do wonders to a person especially when one is able to speak in English fluently. With this, I have decided that I have to become a good example not just in words but in action as well.

The Work of Michel Foucault in Contemporary Criminology Research Paper

The Work of Michel Foucault in Contemporary Criminology - Research Paper Example The works of Michel Foucault, who is considered to be an influential thinker during the 20th century, have proved to be relevant in contemporary criminology. The field of criminology is based on two clear approaches. The first approach mainly focuses on what causes crimes, singles out criminogenic social conditions and examines criminals. The second approach, which is current, deals with analyzing forms of penalty and checking for any faults so as to observe the degree of state encroachment on personal rights and liberty. One of Foucault’s works, Discipline and Punish, which was a book he wrote in 1975, examines punishment in its social context. It changed the way people viewed the prison system. The book clearly reveals how he came about with his main theme of power and domination. In his book, he talks about how prisons came about and clearly reveals its history. He also points out the growing number of prisons despite the fact of them not being successful. The rise in the n umber of prisons and criminals in the US and Britain proves his point. The book reveals his thoughts on how elite people in the society have power and control over everyone. According to Foucault, prisons subjected people to live their lives according to the disciplines that were imposed by the government. He adds on that there have been no improvements in the society since Renaissance and that the only thing that has developed is the technology that has been employed to enslave the spirits of people in our societies.

Fault Diagnosis And Troubleshooting Information Technology Essay

Fault Diagnosis And Troubleshooting Information Technology Essay Network management is nothing but the activity which is associated with the network, which is implemented along with the technology to support the activities. Different types of merged communications and the videos are handled by network. A network is an interlinking structure which requires very much attention. It should be planned cautiously. The network devices must be configured without affecting the remaining part of the network. There may be the failures in the network, so they need to be detected and repaired. Reliability and availability are linked with the network. The role of the network manager not only observes the performance and the security of the network, they also predict the problems in the network and exceed the technologies to make that everything will work well. There exist two frameworks i.e. FCAPS and ITIL that can be useful for interpret and demonstrating the network management. In this paper we can see that how they are helpful to think about the management t ools. Now a days many of the UK public sector organizations are using ITIL. Some companies use FCAPS which is layered with TMN, but ITIL is more beneficiary when compared to FCAPS. The main objective of this paper is to provide detailed information about FCAPS and ITIL and to provide their advantages. They are helpful in managing the networks of medium and large organizations. And also compare FCAPS and ITIL, which would be helpful for NMRU for migrating to ITIL. INTRODUCTION: 1 FCAPS International telecommunications union has developed the Fcaps. They have stated it as a model and not as a product. Along with the TMN layering, ITU-T divided the functionalities provided by the management into five areas. The functionality of the FCAPS is performed at various levels of TMN. 1.1 Fault management Fault management is group of operations that performs finding the errors and correcting the defecting the errors. To be a good fault management it needs to acquire the problem, leave the information to the concerned person and observe the problems through trouble ticketing. The aim of this is to find the errors and indicate the errors that have come in the various places of network. In the short latent time the errors must be identified and rectified. It contains the functions given below, Network monitoring The main function of network monitoring is that to check whether the performance of the network is good, to have a look on the actual state of the network and also to modify the state. The fundamental step of this is to know the errors in the network and respond accordingly which occur in the network. The main aim of network monitoring is to refer the functionality of the alarms. Alarms are nothing but the messages which are sent from the network that something has occurred unexpectedly. The unexpected things can be of any kind i.e. it can be from a router that the line card is not working, a sudden change in the quality of the signal in a wireless network and some unauthorized user have entered into the network. An alarm for network is nothing but a fire alarm which occurs unexpectedly. Sometimes the alarm management synonymously acts with the fault management. Alarm management has classified into two different functions. The basic function of the alarm management is that collecting the alarms, maintaining the exact and ongoing list of the alarms and modifies the alarms. The main task is to collect the alarms from network and also create in such a way that nothing is missing which is important. This considers the alarms that are received and store it to the memory so that a human or an applicant can process it further. It also includes the persisting of the alarms, written to a disk or store in a database so that the alarms which have occurred can be built as a record. In most cases, collection of alarms includes addition of alarms, the mechanisms to check that the zero alarms have lost and we can also request for the replay of alarms. In general we will lose the alarms in different ways. For example, the transportation which is from the underground may not be tested so we may lose the information of the alarms when it is going to the application of the management. There may be the other reason for the information to be lost i.e. the network is blocked so that alarms may fail to reach the destination. In the third case, it will reach the destination but it was not collected in order because the functioning of the application or the database was not in the right way. After the collection of the alarms, it is needed to maintain the list of the alarms. The list also communicates with the operator about the current state of the entities and for instance any device is having any problems. It is essential to realise the way the alarms are being submitted to the users. The result of each alarm is entered into the list that contains the information of the alarm. The list can be examined, classified and it can be separated accordingly, such as the alarm type, the type of the network element modified, the time of the occurrence of the alarm etc. The information of the alarms can be visualized in different ways, but the topology maps are the most popular one. In the advanced alarm management, the additional functions are required to manage the alarms. For processing of the alarms the network managers are provided with the great flexibility. For example, with the functioning of the alarm-forwarding the alarms might be sent to the operator to permit for the dispatch, such as the local police will be called automatically for the home intrusion detection. Another function is that the acknowledgment of the alarm can be done by the network operator; it means they confirm that the alarm has occurred and they are under processing. And the third is clearing the alarms; to describe the condition of the alarm an alarm message has been sent. And after some time the second message is sent indicating that the condition of the alarm doesnt exist for the longer period. Two techniques are dealt with the overloading of the information. One is filtering, is it used to remove the information of the event that is unimportant, the receiver will be allowed to concentrate on the applicable event information. The other one is the correlation, it is used to pre-process and collect the data from the events and the alarms. We will discuss about these two techniques in detail. In general filtering is done not only on alarms but also on events. It is essential to hide as many as events that are not important. Filtering can be enabled in two ways; one is allowing the operators to subscribe only the limited events and also the alarms that are applicable to them, as chosen according to the criteria. By doing this the operators will receive the events that matches there criteria. And the other one which is used to filter the alarms is deduplication of alarms. The condition of the alarm might cause in such a way that it may send the same alarm repeatedly. Because the alarm which comes repeatedly doesnt contain any new information so the new instance of the alarm which is received might be removed. The process of removing the extra alarms is named as deduplication. Alarm correlation refers to alarms that must be filtered and the functions that must be pre-processed. All the received alarm messages are stopped, studied and compared with all the alarms which are probably related with each other. For example, the alarm messages might be linked up because they may have the similar problem. The general idea behind the event and alarm correlation is that rather than forwarding and reporting different messages, it is better to send a few that combine and resume the same information from different raw events. By doing in this way, the alarm messages that are reported can be automatically decreased. Fault Diagnosis and troubleshooting Network diagnosis doesnt variant a lot from medical diagnosis. The variation is nothing but the patient. When the network contains a fault then the ability to solve the problem is, immediately finding out the reason for the problem. The process of solving the problem is meant as root cause analysis. Alarm will only alert us about the symptom but not the reason for that problem. Troubleshooting will support diagnosis. Troubleshooting can simply retrieve the data about the device. Essential support is provided for diagnosis for testing a device or a network. Test can be used not only after occurring a problem but it can be used proactively i.e. we can know the problem in before it knows to the user. Avoiding the faults altogether is best for fault management. Proactive Fault Management In fault management most of the functionalities work in such way that they become active after occurring the errors. It is nothing but taking precautions in the network so that any failures cannot occur. It also includes the analysis of the alarms that recognizes the alarms that have caused due to the minor error. Trouble Ticketing There might be ten thousand users who are using a very large network. In this case, there is chance to occur hundreds of problems in one day. In those only few or none of the problem can be solved. There might be many individual users who are experiencing problems which might be serious to them. Trouble ticket doesnt result for every alarm, issuing that many is not possible. 1.2 Configuration Management In this the first step is to configure the network. In this the hardware and also the programming changes, considering the new programs and the equipments and adding them to the previous one, existing systems should be modified and removal of the unused systems and the programs. A list should be kept so that the equipment and the programs are kept and they are regularly updated. Configuring Managed Resources In the beginning of the configuration management, the activities and the operations which are being managed are configured first. It means that it is involved in sending the commands to the network equipment for changing the settings of the configuration. Sometimes it involves in isolating only a single device, such as only one interface of the port will be configured. Synchronization It can be viewed in two ways one is considering the network as the master and the other one is considering the management system as the master. In reconciliation the network is considered to be the master, the information which is in the management system will reflect in the network. Synchronization of the information is performed from network to the management system. In reprovisioning the Management system is considered to be the master of the management information. It flows from management system to the network, resulting the changes in the configuration of the network. Until the management system will receive a report from the network device that the changes has been made it will maintain a flag indicating that it is out of synchronization. In discrepancy reporting the user is being detected and flagged by the discrepancies. It doesnt maintain the direction of the synchronization which is to be taken place. This is to be performed by the user on case by case basis. If he decides that the information should be reflected by the management system it will ask the reconciliation. Backup and Restore The virus can destroy the data that is present in the hard disk. If we have a backup of data then in such cases we can recover the data. In the same it also applies for the network i.e. the backup and restores functionalities. The data of our users will not be in word or excel sheet but it will be the configuration of the network. The data is very important and it needs to be protected, just as we protect the database in a company. If unfortunately the configurations in the network are wiped off then many people will be affected. Then we dont have time to reconfigure the network. The easiest way to bring the things backup is restoring the network till the end of the configurations. Image Management Many network vendors issue the new versions of the software. In such cases you must be able to upgrade the network. The problem is that we are dealing with thousands of pcs which are connected across the same network. We must be have an idea of which devices are being installed with the different softwares, so that we can send the images which are to be updated and installed without disturbing the services of the network. This is nothing but the image management. 1.3 Accounting Management It is nothing but the functions that will provide the organizations to acquire the revenue and for getting the credit for the services they have provided. It needs to be extremely strong, large availability and the reliable standards are applied. 1.4 Performance Management The performance metrics Throughput, the number of communication units performed per unit time. The communication units depend on the type of the layer, network and the services which are provided to the network. Examples, In the network layer, the total number of packets that are sent per second. In the application layer the voice calls or calls which are attempted per hour. Delay, it is measured per unit time. Different kinds of delays can be measured depending on the layer or the network services. In the network layer, the time taken for an ip packet to reach its destination. In the application layer, the time taken to receive a dial tone after we lift the receiver. Quality, it can be measured in different ways depending on the services of the network. In the network layer, the percentage of the number of packets lost. In the application layer, the percentage of the number of calls terminated or the calls that were dropped. 1.5 Security Management The security aspects that are linked with securing the network from the treats, hackers attack, worms and viruses and the intrusion of the malicious attempts. It is distinguished in two ways. Security of Management means that the management is secure. The management applications must be accessed securely. It is generally authorized based on the application management but not on the user basics. Without securing the management application there is no use of securing the interfaces and the network of the management. Management of security means that the network is secured. It involves only in managing network security. Now days we can come across many online treats. The security treats doesnt target on the network it will just target on the devices which are connected to the network i.e. end users. The use of FCAPS in managing the network: It will manage all the kinds of networks i.e. private, public, mobile, narrow and broadband and including all area networks (WAN, MAN, LAN). Cost of implementation is reduced. Transmitting the digital and analog systems. Signalling the systems and the terminals including the transfer points of the signals. Performance problems are located easily. User is made satisfied. Schedules are implemented shortly. The feedback on the design is very effective. Simplified procedure of network operation center. Telecommunication services are provided with the software. 2 ITIL Now days many organizations are more depending on IT because of that ITIL has been developed by the CCTA in UK. It has provided the same framework for different kind of activities which are performed by the IT department. ITIL is managed in different sets, they are defined as the related functions service support, service delivery, and the other operational guidance are managerial, software support, computer operations, security management and environmental. ITIL has been designed to supply a good framework to present a high quality. Actually it is owned by CCTA, but it is observed and evolved by the Office of Government Commerce. 2.1 Service Support The service support focuses on the users. The customers and the users are the starting point to the model. They are involved in Asking for the changes For communication and also the updates Having any difficulties and queries The delivery of the process In most of the organizations it a Network Operations Center (NOC). It is mainly focused on one discipline i.e. whether the users are able to access to the applications what they are required. It focuses on finding the troubles, helping the users and giving the new applications which are completed on the internet. It includes the following Incident Management The main aim of this is to restore the service operation as early as possible, minimizes the effects on the business operations, and verifying that all the levels of quality of the service and the availability are maintained. It can be defined as an event which is not the part of the service operation which may or may not reduce the quality of the service. The reality of this is the normal operations must be restored as soon as possible without effect on the business or on the end user. Configuration Management It helps in representing the logical and the physical functioning of the ICT services which are provided or delivered to the end user. It is nothing but the asset register, because it contains the information about the maintenance and problems which occur during the configuration of the items. Problem management The main aim of this is find out the reasons for the cause of the incidents and to minimise the cause for the incidents and the problems which are caused because of the errors. A problem is nothing but the unknown cause for one or more incidents and the known error is nothing but the problem which is diagnosed successfully. The problem and known errors are defined by the CCTA as given below, Problem is a condition which is often determined as the come out of the multiple incidents that contains the general symptoms. It can also be determined from an individual incident that indicates the single error, the reason is unknown. Known error is an improvement which is identified by the self made diagnosis of the main cause of the problem and the work which is developed around. Change Management The aim of this is to check the way the changes are handled using with the help of methods and procedures. Change is an event that the status of one or more configuring items which are approved by the management. The aim of this includes: Back- out activities are reduced. Change in the utilization of resources. Disruption of the services. The terminology for the change management: Change: the addition, alteration or deletion of CLs. Change Request: the form which is used to store the details which are to be changed and it is sent into the Change Management by using Change Requestor. Forward Schedule of Changes (FSC): it contains a list of all the changes which are going to come. Service Desk The main aim of this includes initiating the incidents and the request, and an interface is initiated for the ITSM processes. Features include: Individual point of contact. Individual point of entry. Individual point of exit. Data integrity. The Service Desk functions include: Incident Control: service request for the life cycle management. Communication: the progress and the advising of the workarounds must be keep on informing to the customers. The Service Desk contains different names: Call Center: it involves managaging of huge amount of telephone based transactions. Help Desk: at primary support level it will conclude the incidents as soon as possible. Service Desk: it not only helps in handling the incidents and solving the problems but also it will provide an interface for various activities such as changing the requests, maintaining the contracts etc. It contains three different types of structures: Central Service Desk: it will handle the organizations which contains in multiple locations. Local Service Desk: it will meet the local business needs. Virtual Service Desk: it will handle the organizations which contains the locations in multiple countries. Release management The software migration team uses it for the purpose of platform-independent and the distribution of the software and hardware. The availability of the licence and the certified version of the software and the hardware ensure the proper control of the software and the hardware. The responsibility of this is to control the quality of the hardware and software during the implementation and development. The goals of this include: Planning the role of the software. Creation and implementation of the process for distributing and to install the changes that occur in the IT. The expectations of the customers are effectively communicated and managed during the planning of the new versions. The changes in the IT systems must be controlled while the distribution and the installation take place. It focus on the protection of the existing environment. It consists of the recent or modified software or the hardware which is required to use the authorized changes. It includes: Leading software which are released and the leading hardware which are updated, this contains the large amount of recent functionalities. Limited software which are released and the limited hardware which are updated, which contains the lesser enhancements and fixes, in which some of them have already issued as the emergency fixes. Emergency software and hardware fixes, which contains the corrections of some known problems. Based on the released unit it is separated into: Delta Release: the changes which have occurred in the software are only released. Full Release: the complete software program is distributed. Packaged Release: it releases the combination of various changes. 2.2 Service Delivery It mainly concentrates on the services which the ICT must be delivered to supply the sufficient support to the business users. It consists of the following processes. Service Level Management It provides for supervising, identification and examining the stages of IT services which are specified in the Service Level Agreements. It involves in assessing the change of the quality of services. To control the activities of the service level management it will join with the operational processes. It is the direct interface to the customer. It is responsible for the following: It will check whether the It services are delivered are not. It will maintain and produce the Service Catalog. It will check that the IT Service Continuity plans subsist to support the business and its requirements. Capacity Management It supports the best and actual cost supply of IT services by providing the organizations match with their business demands. It includes: Size of the application. Workload Management. Demand Management. Modeling. Planning the Capacity. Resource Management. Performance Management. IT Service Continuity Management It Processes succeed an organisations capability to supply the essential aim of service followed by an interruption of service. It is not only reactive measures but also proactive measures. It involves the following steps: By conducting the Business Impact Analysis the activities can be prioritised. The options are evaluated for the purpose of recovery. Contingency plan has been produced. The plan has been tested, reviewed and revised on regular basis. Availability Management The ICT infrastructure capabilities and services are optimized, service outages are minimized by having a support and give continued level of services to business requirements. The ability of IT component has been addressed to perform at a level all over the time. Reliability: the performance of the IT component at a concerned level at an identified condition. Maintainability: the IT component has an ability to remain or regenerate to a functional state. Serviceability: the external supplier has an ability to conserve the availability of the function below the third party. Resilience: the freedom has been measured from the operational failure and the way the services are kept reliable. Redundancy is one of the popular methods for resilience. Security: a service may contain a related data. Security is nothing but the availability of the data. Financial Management It is the process to deal the cost linked to provide the organisation with the services or resources to see the business requirements. It may refer to Managerial Finance: The financial technique has been concerned itself with managerial significance within the branch finance. Corporate Finance: the financial decisions are dealt with the area of the finance. 2.3 Security Management Since several years it has become a prevalent network management. The external treats are justified with the firewalls and the access prevention. The rights and permissions of the configuration management have been included in the security management, so that the end users are not granted with the unauthorized access. 2.4 Infrastructure Management In large organizations, the systems have been designed and the troubleshoot by the teams are different from the team that installs the equipment. Because of this Configuration management is necessary for the success of IT organizations. For installing and configuring of network devices in an organization the infrastructure management is responsible. 2.5 Application Management It is designed to ensure that an application has the correct configuration design to implement in the environment. This can cover different aspects of network management. It is designed to ensure that it is completely enabled to supply the service and delivery to end users. 2.6 Software Asset Management It is considered for managing an organization. The software products and licenses are very expensive. It is designed similar to the configuration management, because it provides the information on each device about the software installation. In large organizations maintaining the software and accounting for the licence is the complex task. Uses of ITIL in an organization The utilization of the resources is improved. Rework is reduced. The submission of project to the client and the time management is improved. The cost of the quality of the service is justified. The central process is integrated. Excess work is decreased. The services are provided in such a way that they meet the customers demand. Know more from the earlier experience. Be more aggressive. Comparision of ITIL and FCAPS: FCAPS mainly focus on the technology management. ITIL focus on the way to run an IT organization efficiently, i.e. on the process and the workflow. One of the limitation of FCAPS, it cannot target operational process which is required to operate a Service Desk. In ITIL framework we have the service desk in service support which provides the operational services to customers or end users. FCAPS on informs about the problem but doesnt gives us the solution to the problem. But ITIL standards provides services to resolve the problem using service delivery and service management. The main task of the FCAPS is that it will help out in managing the objectives of the network. The ITIL is planned to supply the improved framework. The difference between FCAPS and ITIL is that, FCAPS contains only five layers but ITIL contains eleven layers. The incident management and the availability management in the ITIL are similar to the fault management in the FCAPS. The purpose of fault management in FCAPS is finding out the faults in the network and correcting them, but in ITIL if any problem occurs in the management there is no need to rework entire process. The purpose of the incident management is restoring the normal operations and the availability management is associated with the availability of the service to the business at an executable cost. CONCLUSION: Finally the above discussion concludes the use of FCAPS and ITIL in network management. The organizations which implements ITIL will get the good results in the name of the way the services are designed and delivered. The use of any technology is not specified by ITIL, but the implementation on the use of the tools is effective. Main focus of FCAPS begins with technological view. FCAPS has been proved as low risk and logical. For any organization to enhance its performance or to get proper outcome both FCAPS and ITIL has to be associated together.

Political Institutions Essay

Political institutions have been around since nearly all human societies were organized tribally. Over time they have developed into various organizational features and eventually taken the shape they do today. They have proven to be fundamental in virtually all societies worldwide and by being so omnipresent we often take these institutions for granted and do not realize how vital they are for our society. Moreover, because they are so important and play such a big part in our society, there is a major purpose to compare them between time and place. Therefore, this paper will first elaborate on explanations for political institutions and through that process come up with a working definition. Furthermore, it will explain why political institutions play such a major role in our society, and lastly it will argue for why we should compare these institutions. There are countless definitions of political institutions making the term somewhat vague (Klingemann & Goodin, 1996; Peters & Pierre, 1998). It refers not only to formal political organizations such as political parties and parliament, but also to informal constraints such as customs, ideals, guidelines and actions (Peters & Pierre, 1998; North 1990). In addition, Wiens (2012) emphasizes that these formal and informal rules establish and stabilize roles. Moreover, although there is no consensus amongst theorists of what makes an institution political (Garret & Lange, 1995), Max Weber (cited in Gerth & Mills, 1946) and Moe (2005) argue that an institution is political if it influences the distribution of power. As a result, for the purpose of this essay I will combine these scholars’ explanations to create a working definition. Political institutions are sets of formal and informal rules that influence the distribution of power, create roles and by combinations of standards, ethics, instructions and procedures stabilize interaction for occupants of those roles (Wiens, 2012; Peters & Pierre, 1998; North, 1990; Gerth & Mills, 1946; Hall, 1986). Thus for being so ubiquitous, political institutions have profound ramifications for politics and for society at large. Political institutions have been developed by human beings throughout history to generate order and diminish insecurity (North, 1991) One of the main explanations to why they create order is because by influencing the way entities interact in politics, these political institutions significantly affect the potentials for individuals and groups to resolve collective problems and identify shared interest (Weir, 1992; Moe, 2005; Johnson, 2001). One apparent example is how parties create political alliances and in some cases governmental coalitions. Therefore, political institutions are vital as they stabilize and structure interactions (Hall 1986; Przeworski, 2004), and by being forces of stability also offer predictability (Hague & Harrop, 2010). Furthermore, Moe (2005) claims that political institutions essentially exist and are significant because they make people better off. Whereas North (1981; 1990) and Minier (2001) do not fully share this opinion and rather contend that in order to benefit everyone in society and also for the economy to grow rulers have to adopt the correct political institutions. Thus, in order to find what the â€Å"correct† political institutions might be, there is an intrinsic motivation to compare these between time and place. To be able to comprehend the bigger picture of political power it is crucial to understand how political institutions work and in order to develop deeper knowledge about those it is vital to compare them (Beck et al, 2001). Moreover, without comparing there is not much to acquire from a mere description (Pennings, Keman & Kleinnijenhuis, 2005). In other words, returning back to North’s argument, one can hardly know which political institutions that are â€Å"correct† in bringing benefits to everyone by merely observing just one institution. Therefore, a vital reason to compare is to look for useful ideas and to see which political institutions might be good and bad at achieving specific political goals and see if these various institutions can survive in different political settings (Przeworski, 2004; Nikandrov, 1989). In addition, by seeing similarity in difference and difference in similarity and linking ideas and theory to evidence we can gain greater insight and be more aware of alternatives (Friedman, 2011). However, some scholars point to the dangers of comparison (see Faure, 1994; Radhakrishnan, 2009) and it is important to acknowledge those risks. Nevertheless, as Friedman (2011) explains: â€Å"For all the problems and dangers of comparison, in the end it is worse not to compare than to compare† (p. 756). To summarize, first of all political institutions are sets of formal and informal rules that have since the early ages of man stabilized and shaped interactions and outcomes by establishing roles and affecting power relations. Secondly, political institutions are important because they structure individuals and groups to overcome self-interest and rather cooperate for mutual gain. Furthermore, they create order and by offering predictability they reduce insecurity. In addition, arguably, political institutions can benefit everyone in the society and support in economic growth. Thirdly, we should compare political institutions to learn about valuable ideas, be mindful about possibilities and to see how similar and different institutions functions in various contexts. Lastly, we should compare to get a wider and enhanced understanding of how political institutions function and thus also enables us to further comprehend the mechanics of political power. REFERENCE LIST: Beck, T. , Clarke, G. , Groff, A. , Keefer, P. , & Walsh, P. (2001). New tools in comparative political economy: The database of political institutions. World Bank Economic Review, 15(1), 165-176. Faure, A. M. (1994). Some methodological problems in comparative politics. Journal of Theoretical Politics, 6(3), 307-322. Friedman, S. S. (2011). Why not compare? Publications of the Modern Language Association of America, 126(3), 753-762. Garret, G. , & Lange, P. (1995). Internationalization, institutions, and political change. International Organization, 49(4), 627-655. Gerth, H. H. , & Mills. C. W. (1946). From Max Weber: Essays in sociology. New York, United States: Oxford University Press. Hague, R. , & Harrop, M. (2010). Comparative government and politics: An introduction (8th ed). New York, United States: Palgrave Macmillan. Hall, P. A. (1986). Governing the economy: The politics of state intervention in Britain and France. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press. Klingemann, H. , & Goodin, R. E. (1996). A new handbook of political science. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Johnson, J. (2001). Path contingency in postcommunist transformations. Comparative Politics 33(3) 253-274. Minier, J. (2001). Political institutions and economic growth. Philosophy & Technology, 13(4), 85-93. Moe, T. M. (2005). Power and political institutions. Perspectives on Politics, 3(2), 215-233. Nikandrov, N. D. (1989). Cross-national attraction in education. Comparative Education, 25(3), 275-282. North, D. C. (1981). Structure and change in economic history. New York, United States: Aldine-Atherton. North, D. C. (1990). Institutions, institutional change, and economic performance. New York, United States: Cambridge University Press. North, D. C. (1991). Institutions. The Journal of Economic Perspectives, 5(1), 97-112. Radhakrishnan, R. (2009) Why compare? New Literary History, 40(3), 453-471. Pennings, P. , Kleman H. , & Kleinnijenhuis, J. (2005). Doing research in political science. London, UK: Sage Publications Ltd. Peters, B. G. , & Pierre, J. (1998). Institutions and time: Problems of conceptualization and explanation. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 8(4), 565-583. Przeworski, A. (2004). Institutions matter? Government and Opposition, 39(4), 527-540. Weir, M. (1992). Politics and jobs: The boundaries of employment policy in the United States. Princeton, United States: Princeton University Press. Wiens, D. (2012). Prescribing institutions without ideal theory. Journal of Political Philosophy, 20(1), 45-70.

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